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外部效应

外部效应

外部效应（Externality）是一个经济学名词，指一个人的行为直接影响他人的福祗。它可能是好事，叫作“正面外部效应”，比如修缮一个鸟语花香的花园，可以直接让邻居心旷神怡；但很多情况下它是坏事，叫作“负面外部效应”，比如放高分贝的音乐会吵着邻居的休息，再比如化工厂的污染会直接使周围的居民生活质量下降。当然，外部效应不包括间接影响，比如某人“割肉”卖股票，使得该股票跌了0.00001％，进而影响其他持有该股的股民。所有只通过影响价格而影响他人的行为都没有外部效应。 外部效应有可耗尽（Depletable）和不可耗尽（Nondepletable）之分。对于不可耗尽的外部效应，一个人的享用不影响其他人可享用的数量和质量；对于可耗尽的外部效应，一个人的享用使得另一个人可享用的数量或质量下降。可耗尽外部效应的例子有公共交通，不可耗尽外部效应的例子有国防，污染，等等。 外部效应直接影响供给。一般“好”的外部效应供应得“少”，而“坏”的供应得“多”。如果我只考虑我的快乐，我只会把花园修缮到我的边际效用（Marginal utility）和边际成本（Marginal cost）相当的程度，但是如果我也考虑邻居的快乐，并“快乐着他的快乐”，我和邻居合起来的边际快乐就会大于我一个人的，于是我就愿意把花园修得更好。同样的，如果考虑到邻居的痛苦，并“痛苦着他的痛苦”，我就会少放高分贝音乐；如果化工厂考虑周围居民的健康损失，并且“损失着他们的损失”，它们也会少排污。总之，供应的“多”和“少”都是相对于社会最优供应量而言，个人利益和社会利益的不一致使得“坏”的供应得多，“好”的供应得少。 政府的一个作用就是纠正这种个人利益和社会利益的不一致，把供应量增加或减少到最优。当政府对化工厂的排污收税，然后用之于周围居民，化工厂立即会“损失着他们的损失”，减少排污量。另一个常见的政府的纠正行为是拍卖“排污牌照(pollution licence)”，它能达到和排污税收(pollution taxation)同样的效果，而且一般认为更容易实行。--Junhuiq 16:53 2005年7月30日 (UTC)

经济学

经济学是一门研究人类行为及如何将有限或者稀缺资源进行合理配置的社会科学。 :对物品的生产、流通、交换和消费等诸活动的说明，请参照经济。

学科分支

分类系统


- JEL分类系统

西方经济学


- 微观经济学（個體經濟學）
- 宏观经济学（總體經濟學）
- 计量经济学
- 经济学方法
- 经济学史

經濟學學派列表


- 重農學派
- 李嘉圖學派
- 馬歇爾學派 - 新古典學派 - 新劍橋學派 - 凱恩斯學派 - 新凱恩思學派
- 德國歷史學派
- 奧地利學派 - 新奧地利學派 - 貨幣學派
- 供給學派 - 供給面學派
- 一般均衡學派
- 芝加哥學派
- 公共選擇學派
- 美國制度學派

马克思主义经济学


- 政治经济学：马克思主义经济学。
  - 资本主义部分
    - 世界经济学
  - 社会主义部分

一些经济学概念


- 劳动价值
- 剩余价值
- 博弈论（賽局理論）
- 边际效用
- 均衡价格论
- 有效需求
- 理性预期
- 货币主义
- 马克思主义
- 凯恩斯主义
- 古典经济学
- 制度经济学
- 外部效应

其它相关的话题


- 重商主义学派
- 资本主义
- 市场经济
- 资本市场
- 私有化经济
- 激进派经济学

经济学家


- 经济学家
- 经济学家列表 Category:社会科学
- ja:経済学 ko:경제학 simple:Economics th:เศรษฐศาสตร์

边际效用

即每一单位新增的商品或服务带来的效用。 参见
- 经济学
- 微观经济学
- 边际收益递减
- 效用
- 边际主义
- 人性 Category:经济学 ja:限界効用

边际成本

在经济学和金融学中，边际成本指的是每一单位新增生产的产品（或者购买的产品）带来到总成本的增量。 这个概念表明每一单位的产品的成本与总产品量有关。比如，仅生产一辆汽车的成本是极其巨大的，而生产第101辆汽车的成本就低得多，而生产第10000汽车的成本就更低了（这是因为规模经济）。 但是，考虑到机会成本，随着生产量的增加，边际成本可能会增加。还是这个例子，生产新的一辆车时，所用的材料可能有更好的用处，所以要尽量用最少的材料生产出最多的车，这样才能提高边际收益。 边际成本和单位平均成本不一样，单位平均成本考虑了全部的产品，而边际成本忽略了最后一个产品之前的。例如，每辆汽车的平均成本包括生产第一辆车的很大的固定成本（在每辆车上进行分配）。而边际成本根本不考虑固定成本。 在数学上，边际成本（MC）用总成本（TC）和数量（Q）的偏导数来表示。 TC=\frac 边际成本定价是销售商品时使用的经营战略。其思想就是边际成本是商品可以销售的最低价，这样才能使企业在经济困难时期维持下去。因为固定成本几乎沉没，理论上边际成本可以使企业无损失的继续运转。

其他的成本的定义

#固定成本指不随着产出变化的成本，长期来看，所有的成本都可以看成变量。 #变动成本指营业成本、最初成本、间接成本和直接成本等。这些都随着产出而直接变化，例如劳动力，燃料，能源和原材料成本。 #平均成本指每一单位产出分担的总成本。 #平均固定成本指每一单位产出分担的固定成本。 #平均变动成本指每一单位产出分担的变动成本。

参看词条

#成本 #边际 Category:成本 category:经济学 Category:微观经济学 category:边际

Dark Angels (Warhammer)

The Dark Angels were the first of the original twenty First Founding Legions of the Space Marines serving the Imperium of Man in the fictional future of the tabletop wargame Warhammer 40,000.

History

Lion El'Jonson

The Dark Angels have the honour of being the first Legion created by the Emperor. Like the others, their Primarch was lost while he was still in his infancy. He later turned up on the beautiful but Chaos-blighted planet of Caliban. Ten years after arriving on Caliban, the fully grown Primarch was found by a group of knights known as the Order. Their leader, a man called Luther, brought the mysterious wild man back to the Order's fortress monastery, and named him Lion El'Jonson. El'Jonson quickly adapted to life amongst the humans on Caliban, becoming a partner and brother to Luther. Tales of the pair's feats and exploits circled the planet, and many young men wished to join the Order. El'Jonson led a planetwide crusade against the forces of Chaos, uniting the various monasteries and removing the taint of Chaos from Caliban within a decade. Free from the taint of Chaos, the people of Caliban flourished, and El'Jonson was proclaimed Supreme Grand Master of the Order and ruler of Caliban.

The Great Crusade

The Emperor discovered El'Jonson a short time after his victory. It is said the two instantly recognised the bond between them, and the Emperor granted El'Jonson command of the First Space Marine Legion. The Legion was renamed the Dark Angels in recognition of their black powered armour, and many of Order's knights clamoured to join their ranks. Luther is believed to be one of the first to receive the gene-seed and modifications of a Space Marine, and became the second in command of the entire Legion. However, when the Emperor left, he took El'Jonson and the majority of the Legion with him, leaving Luther and a garrison force behind on Caliban to guard against the return of Chaos. El'Jonson and his Legion performed well during the Great Crusade, although during a particular battle, Lion El'Jonson and Leman Russ, Primarch of the Space Wolves Legion, came to blows over the latter's action during the siege of the Crimson Fortress. This event began a feud which still continues strong in the 41st millennium, usually taking the form of a ritualistic duel between two elected champions, although it has been known to manifest itself in a very violent manner.

Luther's Betrayal

When the Horus Heresy erupted across the Imperium of Man, both the Dark Angels and Space Wolves Legions were on the far side of the galaxy. The two Primarchs agreed to set aside their feud and raced to Terra. They were unable to participate in the defence of the Emperor's Palace, but their impending arrival forced Warmaster Horus to gamble everything on a duel with his father and former master. Horus was defeated by the Emperor, although the Emperor himself was fatally wounded and had to be entombed within the life-preserving mechanism of the Golden Throne. El'Jonson was stricken with grief over the fact that he had not been able to protect the Emperor against Horus, and returned to Caliban. The Dark Angels were greeted in a wholly unexpected way as they entered orbit above Caliban. A salvo of anti-starship fire blasted from the surface of the planet, fatally crippling many ships in the fleet. El'Jonson pulled the fleet out of range, trying to discover the reason for the attack, and discovering a tale of betrayal. As word of El'Jonson's victories during the Great Crusade reached Caliban, his former brother-in-arms, Luther, became envious of the successes and glory he and the garrison force were being denied. He projected his bitterness and jealousy on the Dark Angels who had been left behind; all of them slowly becoming corrupted by the forces of Chaos. Luther's pride and hubris had been all the Dark Gods needed to make him theirs. When he discovered this, Lion El'Jonson was overcome by a terrifying fury, ordering the destruction of his corrupted brothers and the bombardment of the planet. Once the defences were shattered, the Primarch led the assault of Caliban, attacking the fortress monastery of the Order while the fleet continued to attack the planet itself. The Primarch of the Dark Angels faced his former brother, the two engaging in a titanic battle, the like of which only matched the epic battle of Horus and the Emperor. Luther had been elevated by Chaos to be equally matched El'Jonson, reducing the monastery of the Order to rubble. Eventually, El'Jonson was able to gain the upper hand, but could not bring himself to deliver the killing blow. The fallen Luther had no such qualms, mortally wounding the Primarch with a blast of sorcerous power. As Luther did this, he realised how far he had fallen, betraying friend, Legion, and Emperor, and lost his sanity. The Dark Powers realised they had failed again, venting their titanic rage in a warpstorm that tore Caliban, already weakened by the Dark Angels bombardment, apart. The debris of the collapsing planet was sucked into the Immaterium, leaving only a collection of asteroids, one bearing the ruined fortress monastery.

The Aftermath of Caliban

Upon descending to the asteroid's surface, the Dark Angels only found Luther, curled in a foetal ball, repeating the same phrase over and over. From him, the Dark Angels learned that their Primarch had been taken away by the Watchers in the Dark, and that one day they would return El'Jonson. The Space Marines searched the asteroid, finding no trace of their founder and leader. The senior members of the Dark Angels decreed that no-one was to discover the events caused by Luther's betrayal. If these secrets were ever to become known, the Dark Angels would be destroyed, the stain on their honour lasting for eternity. An Inner Circle of the Chapter's most senior members was founded to guard the dangerous knowledge. Luther's fellow traitors, the "Fallen Angels", had disappeared when Caliban was destroyed, scattered across space by the warpstorm. The Dark Angels believed that until every one of these traitors was hunted down, and either killed or made to repent, they would remain "Unforgiven" in the eyes of the Emperor.

Organisation

The organisation of the Dark Angels differs from the Codex Astartes in the higher ranks, along with the layout of the First and Second Companies. The First Company is known as the Deathwing, veterans who only take to the field of battle in bone-white Tactical Dreadnought Armour. This armour was originally black, but was repainted white to honour the valour of a squad of Terminators, who single-handedly halted a Genestealer invasion of their homeworld. The assault aspect of combat is focused in the Second Company, known as the Ravenwing. Every single member of the Company is trained in the use of Attack Bikes and Land Speeders, and all are masters of high-speed warfare.

Headquarters

The ruins of Caliban are located in the Cadian sector, close to the Eye of Terror. Prior to the Great Crusade and the Horus Heresy, the planet of Caliban was covered with lush forests, inhabited by creatures warped by Chaos. The humans of the planet were a proud, martial people, forced to live in great fortress monasteries of stone. The Dark Angels rebuilt their fortress monastery on the asteroid that had borne the old one, drilling deep into the bedrock and rebuilding the ruins. The new fortress is known officially as The Tower of Angels, but is more commonly referred to as The Rock. There are rumours that The Rock has been installed with warp engines, enabling faster-than-light transit through the Immaterium. The warrens beneath The Rock are where the Dark Angels bring their fallen brethren to be redeemed by their Interrogator-Chaplains. It is believed by the Inquisition to hold many other secrets. One such secret is known only to the Inner Circle; Luther is still alive, imprisoned within the deepest cavern of The Rock, where he still insanely mutters that one day, El'Jonson will return and forgive him.

Recruitment

As the Dark Angels have no home world to speak of, they draw their recruits from a variety of planets, mainly with a pre-industrial level of technology. Representatives of the Dark Angels visit each recruiting world once within a normal human's lifetime, and take the strongest juveniles from the population. Each recruit is thoroughly screened, and from the moment he is accepted into the Chapter as a Space Marine, his past becomes irrelevant. After the Heresy, the Dark Angels recruited from a single planet (known as 'Plains World') whose inhabitants resembled the Native Americans. Sometime before the 41st Millenium a group of returning Deathwing found that their planet had been overrun fifty years earlier by Genestealers. The Terminators cleansed the world and rescued the enslaved populace but the Dark Angels leadership recognised the folly of relying upon one planet for manpower and so diversified their recruiting grounds (these events were chronicled in the short story Deathwing)

Combat Doctrine

The Dark Angels follow the standard doctrine of the Codex Astartes, but their dogged resistance against overwhelming odds is legendary. The Dark Angels will stubbornly stand their ground in combat, refusing to give ground to the enemy, even if tactically beneficial to do so. The primary driving force of the Chapter is the hunt and capture of "The Fallen". Only by forcing every single one to repent do the Dark Angels believe they can restore their honour. If a member of "The Fallen", or someone who may know of the location of one, is present on the battlefield, the Dark Angels will ignore their objective and do all in their power to capture this individual. Everything else is second to the capture of a Fallen Angel, including any human life. It is not unknown for Dark Angels to fire upon friendly targets in order to prevent them from discovering the secret of the Fallen. The Dark Angels are also notoriously intolerant of non-humans and mutants, even those considered benevolent by the Imperium of Man. They are also highly mistrustful of the Imperial Inquisition, and will refuse to fight alongside any force that incorporates members of the Inquisition, or non-human soldiers. This is due to the fact that they do not want the Inquisition investigating the Chapter.

Battlecry

"Repent! For tomorrow you die!"

Appearance

The symbol of the Chapter is a winged sword. Variants of this symbol exist for the Deathwing and Ravenwing, the former depicting the winged sword as broken, the latter a sword held by a single wing and raven's claw. Prior to the Horus Heresy, the power armour of the Dark Angels Legion was jet-black. After the Heresy, the bulk of the Chapter began to appear in dark green armour, while the First and Second Companies' armour remained black. The Deathwing later changed their armour to bone-white.

Notable Members


- Commander Azrael - Chapter Master during the 41st millennium.
- Cypher - Foremost of the Fallen, former members of the Legion corrupted by Chaos.

Background Information

The background of the Dark Angels, both in Games Workshop material and within the fictional Warhammer 40,000 universe is shrouded in mystery. Aspects of the Chapter's fall to Chaos bear similarities to the legends of King Arthur, in particular Arthur's/El'Jonson's eventual defeat. Also, the name of their Primarch, Lion El'Jonson, is said to have been inspired by the English poet Lionel Johnson, the author of "The Dark Angel".

Conspiracy Theories

Games Workshop has in recent years restricted the information available for the Dark Angels, to further emphasize the mystery surrounding the chapter. The exact fate of Lion El'Jonson had been purposefully left out of all texts since the early 1990's, only re-emerging in the 2001 "Index Astartes" article published in White Dwarf Magazine. Information regarding the Chaos Space Marines character Cypher, rumoured to be foremost of the Fallen, is kept sketchy, to further fuel players' imaginations. The novel Angels of Darkness, written by Games Workshop staff member Gav Thorpe, expands upon the events that split the Chapter. The novel suggests that El'Jonson was a very dark and brooding figure who, while in the chaotic forests of Caliban, had been touched and possibly corrupted by Chaos. This is evident via his personality; he would stay in the shadows, because being exposed would be to invite predators. The darkness was both dangerous and welcoming. This paranoia and suspicion was passed down to his Legion, and, eventually, the Successor Chapters of the Dark Angels. He was also prepared to sacrifice thousands of humans to achieve a tactical victory for his Legion. This was not out of disrespect of human life, but he was prepared to do anything to achieve his goals. He planned to lure a host of Orks from their hiding holes by using a populated city as bait. The plan worked and the Dark Angels destroyed the Orks; however, some Dark Angels were left a little bit shaken by the Primarch's actions. During the Horus Heresy, El'Jonson supposedly refused to choose a side, waiting for a victor to emerge from the galactic civil war before pledging his support to the victor. When the Lion returned to Caliban, the garrison remaining there opened fire upon his fleet, fearing that he had turned to Chaos. Seeing this as treason and heresy, the Lion ordered a full-scale bombardment. The destruction of Caliban soon followed. Some people consider the novel especially canonical due to the fact that it is written by Gav Thorpe, one of the senior members of Games Workshop. However, many people, including many Dark Angels players, consider the novel to be unofficial.

References


- White Dwarf Magazine (Australian Edition). ISSN 0265-8712
  - Index Astartes - Dark Angels. Issue 255. Published by Games Workshop Australia in March 2001.
- Codex: Dark Angels (3rd Edition Rules, 1st of 2 editions prior to the release of 4th Edition Rules). Publised by Games Workshop UK in 1999. ISBN 1-869893-67-0 Category:Space Marine Chapters (Warhammer 40,000)

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